Walsh (2010) explains object relations theory focuses on the
concept that the internalized images and attitudes we have regarding others
determines our relationship with the self and influences our approach when
forming new relationships. The theory focuses on interpersonal
relations, specifically within early childhood with an emphasis on the
mother-child relationship. The theory based in both ego psychology
and developmental theory emphasizes that our inner world is composed of
representations and feelings of others, which have a direct impact on the
feelings and attitudes we have about ourselves. The framework for
the theory draws on the concept of attachment theory and the effects of early
nurturing. In other words, the theory assumes that the quality of
our interpersonal relationships during development can predict the quality of
our future relationships.
Object relations theory is a very nice fit for the social work
profession as it recognizes the significance of environment on the individual’s
development and functioning (Walsh, 2010).
The following page from the Psychology Department at Sonoma
University has a great break down of some of the key terms in object relations
and information regarding the major proponents of the theory:
Individuals with poor object relations will often have frequent
relationship conflicts due to the maladaptive defense mechanisms they have
developed. These defense mechanisms can include splitting, introjection,
and projection identification (Walsh, 2010). The following public video links
provide some insight into some of these defense mechanisms:
Introjection
Splitting & Projection
Walsh (2010) describes the concept of splitting to be the most
frequent defense mechanism demonstrated in people with poor object
relations. Individuals utilizing this defense see others as either “good”
or “bad”. Typically, others are good when they fulfill a need for the
individual but others who disappoint, frustrate, or anger the individual are
considered “bad”. This defense mechanism will usually carry over into the
clinical setting as the client may alternate between perceiving the worker as
either “good” or “bad” (Walsh, 2010).
This theory indicates that we develop various attachment styles that are adapted from the types of parenting we encounter as infants (Walsh, 2010). John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth are the leading theorists behind the development of attachment theory. Bowlby was interested in developing an understanding of the remarkable behaviors demonstrated by infants when being separated from their mothers. He postulated that these behaviors were a related to an evolutionary response for survival because the infants were dependent upon being in close proximity of the parent for essential needs to survive. Thus, he proposed that the more secure infants felt with their attachment figures in regards to maintaining proximity the more likely the infant was to explore their environments (Fraley, n.d.).
Mary Ainsworth expanded upon this concept by conducting the first empirical study that would identify the patterns of attachment behaviors or styles (Fraley, n.d.) There are four identified infant attachment styles, the first three were determined by Ainsworth and her colleagues in the 1970’s and the fourth, the disorganized type more recently in the 1990’s by Carlson and Main (Walsh, 2010).
Secure – infants that display secure attachments will be somewhat distressed upon separation from their mothers but still greet them enthusiastically upon their return. These children display more engagement in exploratory behaviors within their environment (Walsh, 2010).
Anxious-ambivalent – infants that display anxious-ambivalent attachments will demonstrate distress upon being separated from their mothers and again when they return. Parents of these infants may be inconsistent in their responses to the infant, which provokes the child to be hypervigilant for any signs of rejection (Walsh, 2010).
Avoidant types – infants that display avoidant attachments will be undisturbed upon being separated from their mother and again on her return. This suppression of emotions may be a way of avoiding rejection from the parent (Walsh, 2010).
Disorganized – infants displaying disorganized attachments demonstrate no predictable strategies for bonding with their mothers. This chaotic behavior is thought to be reflective of parents who are either hostile or fearful and are unable to provide a consistent sense of security for the child (Walsh, 2010).
Below are two informative videos that provide a brief background on John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth and their respective work: John Bowlby:
Attachment theory has
been applied to early childhood development and adulthood. In an effort
to discover possible applications of attachment theory to adolescence, Brown
and Wright (2001) conducted a selective review of the literature. Brown
and Wright propose that there are several significant similarities (such as
rapid neurological change, fluctuating hormone levels, and the need for a secure base) between early childhood development and
adolescence that suggest that adolescent attachment patterns are important and
should be further researched.
Psychopathology
Several studies indicate that attachment patterns in
adolescents and their relationship to psychopathology are similar to those of
earlier developmental periods. Homann (1997) linked depression during
adolescence to insecure (dismissing) maternal attachment. Suicidality has
been positively correlated with preoccupied and unresolved attachment styles
(Adam, et al., 1995). Conduct Disorder has been found to be associated with
unresolved and dismissing attachment types (Allen, et al., 1996; Rosenstein &
Horowitz, 1996), while adults with antisocial and personality disorders have
been associated with unresolved attachment suggesting that adolescents with
dismissing and unresolved attachments may be at greater risk of developing
these disorders.
The following video is
about attachment styles between teens and their parental figures. It is
important to also remember that attachment styles between teens and
non-caregiver figures are important since the onset of puberty usually marks a
widening of teens' support base to include sexually and emotionally intimate
non-caregiver relationships.
References
Adam KS,
Sheldon-Keller AE, West M. 1995. Attachment organization and vulnerability to
loss, separation and abuse in disturbed adolescents. Cited by Brown, L. S.,
& Wright, J. (2001). Attachment theory in adolescence and its relevance to
developmental psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 8(1),
15-32. doi: 10.1002/cpp.274
Allen JP, Hauser
ST, Borman-Spurrell E. 1996. Attachment theory as a framework for understanding
sequelae of severe adolescent psychopathology: an 11-year follow-up study. Cited by Brown, L. S., & Wright, J.
(2001). Attachment theory in adolescence and its relevance to developmental
psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 8(1),
15-32. doi: 10.1002/cpp.274
Brown, L. S.,
& Wright, J. (2001). Attachment theory in adolescence and its relevance to
developmental psychopathology. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 8(1),
15-32. doi: 10.1002/cpp.274
Homann E. 1997.
Attachment and affect regulation indepressed mothers and their adolescent
daughters. Cited by Brown, L. S., & Wright, J. (2001). Attachment theory in
adolescence and its relevance to developmental psychopathology. Clinical
Psychology & Psychotherapy, 8(1), 15-32. doi:
10.1002/cpp.274
Rosenstein, D.
S., & Horowitz, H. A. (1996). Adolescent attachment and psychopathology. Journal
Of Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 64(2), 244-253.
doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.2.244
Walsh (2010) illustrates how different types of early attachments can have an
effect on adolescents who present with delinquent type behaviors.
The case study, involving a fifteen year old girl who was reported by her
mother as constantlybeing in trouble, illustrates object relation
intervention. Upon further exploration of the client’s conduct it was
discovered that she was caught stealing and was facing legal charges for arson.
The mother also expressed she was concerned about her inappropriate sexual
behaviors and possible human trafficking. She often exhibited aggressive
behavior and appeared to her family as unhappy and ungrateful. With her peers
she had good social skills but often got involved in negative activities.
She did not appear to apply herself in school and seemed to have no motivation
to study or excel in her classes. She was described as being the youngest
child, with an age gap of seven years and the only girl in the family.
Her mother was overprotective and obsessed with her due to previously losing a
child during pregnancy. Due to the age gap she did not have a good
relationship with her siblings. This attachment style made her wary
of getting close to people because she was afraid of being smothered. As
a result of this attachment style,when people were friendly but
did notcome close she saw them as good, but once they became close
she saw them as bad. In this case her behavior was not caused by a lack
of attention, but by too much attention by the primary caregiver preventing the
teenager from gaining the appropriate transition to independence. She
therefore equates closeness with smothering. As a result she presented
with anger issues and oppositional behavior. What this case study
demonstrates is how attachment styles are developed and influence future
relationships. What the social worker did which proved to be effective, was to
use object relations theory, which helped the client to break her behaviors and
understand that getting close to someone in a relationship did not mean she had
to lose her own identity (Walsh 2010).
Intervention
Object relation theory intervention focuses on the reflection of
sustainment, development and influence of relationships over a client’s
lifetime. Clinicians have to remain empathetic as the client’s mood
changes due to bringing up past issues. The first step for the clinician is
finding the pattern of relationships that may have a positive or negative
affect on the client. The clinician then makes interpretations of the
impact of these relationships and the client’s feelings about them, and
identifies areas of maladaptive coping. The final step in intervention is
helping the client cope with the negative relationships and to resolve the
interpersonal conflicts (Walsh, 2010).
Effectiveness of Theories on Adolescents
Despite limited research validation, object relations theory has
proved effective in a number of populations, for example children in foster
care, survivors of child abuse, juvenile delinquency and other emotional issues
for adolescents (Walsh, 2010). Evidence also suggests that object
relations therapy can provide huge benefits. In a nondirective leadership style
they were able to ask questions that encouraged developmental reflection
(Walsh, 2010).
Evidence has shown a strong connection between the level of
psychological functioning and level of secure attachment (Brown & Wright,
2001). According to Colonnessi et al. (2011), there is a strong correlation
between insecure attachments and the level of anxiety, and the level of anxiety
is heightened through adolescence. The result from their study indicated
that an ambivalent attachment style due to the uncertainty of the proximity of
the caregiver in early childhood can increase the level of anxiety, which is
thought to be linked to internalizing problems and the lack of self-confidence
(Brown & Wright, 2001).
Interpersonal relationships with both same and opposite sexes are important in
adolescence and failure to make these connections has been suggested to lead to
problems with adjusting with and coping with further challenges (Christopher,
Nangel & Hansel, 1993).
As adolescents age, the complexity of these relationships expands
and their peer group grows. Adolescents need to form their own identity during
the developmental stages. If this is not successfully completed it might
lead to an identity crisis. If an adolescent has an identity crisis they
may have a tendency to be aggressive and have a volatile personality
(Christopher, Nangel & Hansel, 1993).
Patrick and Rich (2004) considered that utilizing object relations
while providing learning skills to adolescents with anger management issues,
helped connect them with their internal world. These adolescents had
difficulties with object constancy and the representations of good and bad are
not integrated. They have found role playing exercises rapidly brought
about transference issues.
Establishing autonomy in adolescents is the central task, and can
be conceptualized by severing emotional ties with the parents, while making new
connections with their peers. If the parent provides adequate parenting
style, the adolescent can make these necessary transitions (Church,
1994). It was found that adolescents react to authoritarian figures
negatively, preferring a more egalitarian approach (Church, 1994), yet still responded
to the direct approach when seeking advice. Attachment in adolescence
begins to change as the adolescent ventures out to gain independence, yet
emotionally is still looking for support from the caregiver. This transition
can be difficult, which is why adolescents are at a greater risk for
participating in delinquency, suicide attempts, suicide, risky behaviors, and
eating disorders during this period (Brown & Wright, 2001). There are
links between maladaptive coping and specific attachment styles. Studies
have suggested that maternal attachment insecurity has led to depression during
adolescence (Brown & Wright, 2001). Those with unresolved attachment
were more likely to report high levels of suicide attempts (Brown & Wright,
2001). Adolescents that reported unattached and overly controlling caregivers had a higher prevalence of eating
disorders (Brown & Wright). Cases of adolescent delinquency and
conduct disorders often experienced a higher level of abandonment or
abandonment threats. Adolescents are at a higher risk of maladaptive coping
when they had avoidant and unresolved attachment (Brown & Wright,
2001). Hoglend et al. (2011) conducted a study which found that object
relations has an important role in transference work when adolescents are more
unstable in relationships, such as fear of rejection, avoidance and devaluing
themselves.
Interventions with troubled adolescents can be challenging, as
this is a period of rapid growth in all aspects of developmental stages.
Maturation of the body often happens in advance of the responsibilities of an
adult. The consequences often cause strain in interpersonal relationships
within the family dynamic (Kalinyak & Jones, 1999). Recognition is
given to the structure of the nuclear family and the unspoken rules that
influence behaviors. These behaviors are often preconceived expectations
with a lasting influence (Kalinyak & Jones, 1999).
Klometk et al. (2007) studied the self-object with suicidal
adolescents comparing and contrasting three groups. The group identified as
suicidal had significant problems differentiating negative issues of the self
from that of their parents, providing evidence of the effectiveness of object relations
in understanding this group in relation to symbiosis. Mandin (2007)
focused their study on the object relations regarding projection and splitting
to try to make sense of an infant’s inner world. In the first three
months it is thought the baby manages their anxiety by separating feelings into
good and bad by projecting difficult anxieties on the external objects.
In the second stage the infant starts to recognize the whole objects, so that
they can tolerate co-existing emotions. This is further explained by
Brodie (2007) who considers that delinquent teens often see things in black and
white terms, and promotes intervention in helping them recognize the
whole-object perspective, and that positive and negative can simultaneously
exist in object relations. As cited in Sousa et al. (2011), Armsden and Greenberg (1987) considered that adolescents that have a more secure attachment in the early developmental stages with their primary caregiver go on to develop high self-esteem, well-being and satisfaction with life in general. Additionally, they are successful in forming stable relationships with others.
Effectiveness in cultural
aspects
Studies have found several cultural differences in effectiveness,
this may be due to the lack of research on attachment in other countries and
the difference of how attachment in perceived (Colonnessi et al, 2011).
Culture defines how children are raised and the age appropriate expectations,
so it is not surprising the theory has difficulty being universally applied as
it is based on a perception of an American Caucasian family. There are
some things that are common between cultures, such as explanation of deaths or
accidents, nature, development of language, and a family unit. Those who
grow up surrounded by these norms consider it natural (Applegate,1990).
Transitional objects or non-living attachments may be to unconventional objects
or in some cases objects from a person’s home country. Children in other
countries may have little need to acquire a transitional object in instances
where they have multiple satisfying relationships with caregivers. In
some cultures the idea of psychotherapy is invasive and embarrassing
(Applegate, 1990). The commonly used term “melting pot” that is said to
minimize the difference of cultures neglects to see the value of individualism
and lets clinicians become desensitized to the impact cultures have on the individual
(Applegate, 1990).
References
Applegate, J.S. (1990). Theory, culture, and behavior: Object
relations in context. Child and Adolescent Social Work, 7(2),
85-99. Retrieved from Ebscohost.
Brodie, B.R. (2007). Adolescence and delinquency: An
object relations theory approach. MD: Lanham
Brown, L.S., & Wright, J. (2001). Attachment theory in
adolescence and its relevance to developmental psychopathology. Clinical
Psychology and Pyshcotherapy, 8, 15-32. Retrieved from
ebscohost.
Christopher, J.S., Nangle, D.W., & Hansen, D.J. (1993). Social-skills
interventions with adolescents: Current issues and procedures. Behavior
Modificaiton, 17, 314-338. doi: 10.1177/0145445593173005
Church, E. (1994). The role of autonomy in adolescent
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 31(1),101-108.
Retrieved from Ebschost.
Colonnesi, C., Draijer, E.M., Stams, G.J.J.M., Van der Bruggen, C.
O., & Bogels, S.M. (2011). The relation between insecure attachment
and child anxiety: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Clinical Child
& Adolescent Psychology, 40(4), 630-645. doi:
10.1080/15374416.2011.581623
Hoglend, P., Hersoug, A.G., Bogwald, K.P., Amlo, S., Marble, A.,
Sorbye, O., Rossberg, J.I., Ulberg, R., Gabbard, G.O., & Christoph, P.C. (
2011). Effects of transference work in the context of therapeutic alliance
and quality of object relations. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 5, 697-706. doi: 10.1037/a0024863
Klomek, A.B., Zalsman, G., Apter, A., Meged, S., Har-Even, D.,
Diller, R., & Orbach, I. (2007). Self-object differentiation in
suicidal adolescents. Comphrensive Psychiatry, 48, 8-13. doi:
10.1016/j.comppsych.2006.06.001
Mandin, P. (2007). The contribution of systems and object-relation
theories to an understanding of the therapeutic relationship in social
work practice. Journal of Social Work Practice, 21(2),
149-162. doi: 10.1080/026505530701371861
Patrick, J. & Rich, C. (2004). Anger management taught to
adolescents with an experiential object relations approach. Child
and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 21(1), 85-100. Retrieved from
ebscohost. Sousa, C., Herrenkohl, T.I., Moylan, C.A., Tajima, E.A., Klika,
J.B., Herrenkohl, R.C., & Russo M.J. (2010). Longitudinal study on the
effects of child abuse and children’s exposure to domestic violence,
parent-child attachment, and antisocial behavior in adolescence. Journal
of Interpersonal Violence, 26, 111-136. doi: 10.1177/0886260510362883
Walsh, T. (2010). Theories for direct social work practice (2nd ed.). CA.
Belmont: Brooks /Cole.